Marshall was able to make full use of a line of communication that, at its peak in the late spring of 1918, was moving nearly 13,500 tons of supplies per day by rail and river. The logisticians of all armies created the administrative and infrastructure support that allowed the Great War to become the first truly modern industrial war. 103-104. Erickson, Ordered to Die 2001, pp. Historic England holds an extensive range of publications and historic collections in its public archive covering the historic environment. Five million Britons are under arms, and our Allies must also be supplied with food, munitions and clothing. [40], While the western front provides numerous logistic lessons, the Mesopotamian Theater provides an interesting example of both theater logistics and a theater where water was critical. When modern forces’ lines of communication are severed, crisis generally strikes quickly — the United Nations forces’ retreat from the Chosin Reservoir during the Korean War and the surrender of the remnants of German Sixth Army at Stalingrad in early 1943 are two excellent examples. Even more than food, water is required to sustain human activity and its absence can prove disastrous far more rapidly than lack of food. [48] Erickson notes that the British pause in the late spring of 1917 was a godsend for the Ottomans and that its impetus was logistic. Soldiers were often transported in cattle, or horse trucks once they crossed the chanel. Stephenson, David: With our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918, Cambridge, MA 2011, p. 341. A warship is an inherently different fighting tool than, say, an army division or brigade. Fayle, C. Ernest: The War and the Shipping Industry. By February 1917 he had reached a point where he could provide reasonable estimates to the War Office of the kind of daily needs his lines of communication had to meet. In early 1916 the War Office assumed control of the campaign and began the process of developing a modern line of communication originating at a fully functioning base port. Also, if they had married an English girl whilst in England, would she travel back with him? [34] Ironically, one TEU is roughly the same size as one of the famous “forty and eight” boxcars that saw use on the French railways during the Great War. 25-33; Wolmar, Christian: Engines of War: How Wars were Won and Lost on the Railways, New York 2010, pp. A century removed from the opening salvoes of the Great War, there is little truly new in terms of means of transportation. The use of horses in World War I marked a transitional period in the evolution of armed conflict.Cavalry units were initially considered essential offensive elements of a military force, but over the course of the war, the vulnerability of horses to modern weapons such as machine gun, mortar, and artillery fire greatly reduced their utility on the battlefield. They must also plan to build up the infrastructure in theater to a point where the materiel can be distributed to the troops with regularity. After only four months of fighting, more than a million men had already perished in the bloody conflict. Grade II listed Sandford Parks Lido, Cheltenham. The days of the cavalry charge were over! In this case, as Edward Paice relates, most supplies arrived from overseas at Durban, South Africa; from there, the supplies: A second route ran by rail from Cape Town to Livingstone (around 1,500 miles) and then “a further 700 miles by carrier and canoe through Northern Rhodesia to Fife.”[21] All this, as Paice notes, merely got the supplies to the equivalent of a base port in France—into the theater, in other words. For comparison, Rouen imported 44,935 per week in March 1917 (roughly 180,000 tons per month) and Dunkirk 34,250 (137,000) tons. [52] Marshall’s inland water transport ran a daily average of nearly 3,700 tons of supplies from this base port to the river head at Mosul, 792 river miles upstream. On the first day of the Battle of the Somme in 1916, 500 ‘Boy Soldiers’ were killed and 2,000 wounded. They were similar in how they were run except that each had its own specialisation. Instead the contents had to be moved ashore in Basra, sorted, stored and then dispatched to the formations upstream. Without communication with the outside world and accessible medical care, sickness and poor morale can easily sap an army’s ability to fight effectively. The Middle East (Palestine) battle front lacked continuous rail lines from Istanbul — supplies headed from Istanbul to Haifa had to be trans-shipped (off-loaded from one rail system and re-loaded on a second) at Pozanti and then a second time at Osmaniye before arriving at Haifa. Units of the Imperial German Navy (IGN) that left or found themselves outside the confines of the North Sea had a range that was limited to the coal in their bunkers plus what they might be allowed by neutral countries or what they could commandeer. India had both a tremendous and diverse population and her soldiers shared that diversity. This requires a variety of means of transportation: light railways for artillery ammunition, horse and wagon, sometimes motorized transport and often the backs of fellow soldiers to reach the trenches. Once the political-military decision-making occurs, logisticians need to figure out how to get the materiel that their forces will need to the theater or theaters where those forces are to be committed. [17] The injurious possibilities of disease were also evident in 1918 when the great influenza pandemic swept the globe. The wounded were divided into three categories that could be summed up as 'trivial, treatable and terrible'. [29] In 1914 Britain’s maritime power, the combination of the strength of a nation’s navy and the transport capacity of its merchant marine,[30] was essentially devoted to the maintenance of the British economy. On arrival in France they would soon be confronted by the horrors of the front line either as cavalry horses or as beasts of burden. [24] The AEF also made extensive use of motorized transport, using 274,000 vehicles during their time in France. In Europe, Germany’s political-military decision makers had to prepare for the possibility of a two-front war in both the east and west. Food is another necessity and providing some 4,000-5,000 calories per day was a difficult challenge, particularly in combat conditions. Transported to the ports, they were hoisted onto ships crossing the Channel before being initiated into the horrors of the front line either as beasts of burden or as cavalry horses. 184-185. In addition, Maude had six mule columns, three motorized columns and three camel columns moving supplies forward. It was later moved to Harwich, Listed Grade II. Posts about WW1 Transport written by sommecourt. Malnourished, starving, dehydrated or frozen soldiers simply cannot be expected to fight effectively except in cases of direst need. "Only be able to hold 7,000 people..."? So when Britain's ultimatum to Germany to withdraw its army from Belgium expired on 4 August 1914, the British Empire, including Canada, was at war, allied with Serbia, Russia, and France against the German and Austro-Hungarian empires. The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) for example used, maintained and expanded eighty-nine berths in twenty-eight ports and used over 8,000 kilometers of rail lines to move supplies from those ports to storage areas, depots and railheads during 1917 and 1918. [5] Beyond this, the BEF’s General Headquarters (GHQ) had to plan for and arrange the transportation of variable supplies such as ammunition, additional construction materials and the like which were needed over and above the daily usage. There were those who opposed the use of underage soldiers. In total at least 74,187 Indian soldiers died during the war. Those with more serious but still treatable injuries were 'patched up' enough to be transported … A troopship (also troop ship or troop transport or trooper) is a ship used to carry soldiers, either in peacetime or wartime.Operationally, standard troopships–often drafted from commercial shipping fleets–cannot land troops directly on shore, typically loading and unloading at a seaport or onto smaller vessels, either tenders or barges.. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. 7. … At Richborough, Kent a new port was built and included the world’s first roll-on roll-off rail ferry; the connecting rail bridge survives at Harwich, and is listed Grade II. This requires a variety of means of transportation: light railways for artillery ammunition, horse and wagon, sometimes motorized transport and often the backs of fellow soldiers to reach the trenches. In total at least 74,187 Indian soldiers died during the war. The wartime post was a remarkable operation, … Lambert, Nicholas A.: Planning Armageddon: British Economic Warfare and the First World War, Cambridge, MA 2012, pp. A number of therapies were available at the hospitals far away from the battlefield. In comparison, modern container ships are rated in terms of the number of “trailer equivalent units” or TEU that they can nominally carry. Soldiers married their sweethearts while on leave or before departing for the front. Many wounded were transported by water in hospital barges. All armies invested enormously in infrastructure development, but French, British and American building included significant port expansion to handle more ships simultaneously. The BEF’s subsequent growth and the addition of more expeditionary forces in other places such as the Middle East and Mesopotamia were the result of additional decision-making in London. Source: Birch to Dawnay, 11/21/18, Maj-Gen G P Dawnay Papers, Imperial War Museum. Please click on the gallery images to enlarge. Roy, From defeat to victory 2010, pp. 139-154, passim. Find out about services offered by Historic England for funding, planning, education and research, as well as training and skill development. Britain and France, on the other hand, could call on the resources of their empires for support. January was generally bad due to wet weather which all but stopped motorized transport, slowed rail traffic and forced animal transport to be used only for short periods for fear of exhausting them in the mud.[43]. It also led to transnational, global systems of captivity. The BEF assembled the first fifteen wagons for each division each day at base ports and pushed them forward automatically; the last five wagons were added at a regulating station and the complete train (two divisional packs, forty wagons) arrived at a railhead daily where the two divisions collected the contents. The area in which the British and Ottoman empires faced off was not blessed with abundant transportation infrastructure. Explore the many ways you can help to support the incredibly rich and varied heritage. See Brown, British Logistics 1998, pp. ): transferred to smaller steamers and shipped eighty miles to Chinde. In some cases the challenge was even further enhanced by religious dietary requirements. The British could use the natural lines of communication provided by the rivers and this allowed the MEF to bring more force to bear more efficiently than its opponents.[55]. British operations in late 1915, for example, began on 1 September after the worst of the summer heat and in late 1917 British operations ceased in May due to the heat. Whether providing comfort, inspiration, or indispensable service, animals have played a crucial role in militaries and armed conflicts for centuries. Finally, a soldier required at least a couple of liters of potable water over and above that contained in their food, plus water for sanitary purposes such as shaving and a means of efficiently disposing of human waste, ideally in a manner that would not result in its being spread liberally about the countryside by shelling. Cudahy, Brian J.: Box Boats: How Container Ships Changed the World, New York 2006, pp. In 1914 veritable armies of stevedores loaded and unloaded ships by hand. The war united Canadians at first. The armies of 1914-1918 faced the challenge of supplying millions of men in theaters scattered around Eurasia and Africa with, essentially, 19th century technology. Her ports are busy, day and night the work never ceases, for shipload after shipload of men, munitions, and supplies must be sent to her far-flung armies. Natural materials, which were what tailors and cobblers of the day had to work with, break down easily in harsh conditions and conditions on the western front in particular were very harsh on clothing — the wet and mud proved inimical to the long term survival of clothing and footwear. Figure 3 illustrates the growth in the combined river and rail tonnage capacity enjoyed by the MEF. 4 of 4. By the end of the conflict there were five million soldiers dotted around the world, with more than 2.3 million on the western front alone. Neilson, Keith: Reinforcements and Supplies from Overseas: British Strategic Sealift in the First World War, in: Kennedy, Greg (ed. The transport section of the Army Service Corps is doing splendid work.'. All contents had to be moved dockside to a point where the ship’s cranes and booms could access them and lift them into the hold. Some planes shot people from underneath. However, the service of animals during times of military conflict often goes unmentioned. At the end of the war, for example, Canada transported home approximately 300,000 soldiers and members of the medical corps along with 54,000 wives and children. Paice, Edward: World War I, The African Front, New York 2010, pp. Railways were crucial for conveying troops and their equipment and many camps were provided with new branch lines and sidings as were new munitions factories. On land the most efficient way to move things was and remains the railway — while there are fleets of large trucks plying modern highways, rail is still the most cost-effective means for moving goods over significant distances. Ibid., p. 41, p. 291 note 1, p. 243. 1-7. In the Korean War, America redoubled its commitment to the dead. In some cases, secretive rendezvous were set up between German high seas raiders such as the SMS Emden and supply ships that had run the gauntlet of the RN’s blockade but this was always a calculated gamble. High explosive rounds proved inadequate to pierce deeply dug concrete bunkers. The BEF, for example, in spite of beginning the war with a tiny force in France and then dealing with a major shell crisis during 1915, managed to expend 3.4 million metric tons of artillery ammunition over the course of the war (see Figure 1). [32] One GRT is really a measure of volume equal to one hundred cubic feet,[33] so the average British merchant ship in 1918 had a carrying volume of roughly 460,000 cubic feet. Steam ship, steam locomotive and horse drawn wagon were the prime movers of supply for much of the war. The second and more deadly wave swept Western Europe in September and killed nearly as many Americans as died in battle (43,000 influenza fatalities). Veterans Day is a time to commemorate the brave men and women who are serving or have served in the armed forces. Syk, Andrew (ed. 186-187. [46] Unlike the Ottomans, who had to rely entirely on overland transport, Maude could make use of riverine transport on the Tirgis and, to a lesser degree, the Euphrates. Once in, they were treated the same as the older men. As Frederick Maude (1864-1917), commander of the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force (MEF) in 1916-17, wrote, “if you feed them well they feel well, and consequently they fight well, and it is money well invested.”[12] The difficulty in providing rations was exacerbated by the fact that the calories supplied needed to comprise a reasonably balanced diet that will not trigger health issues due to a lack of key nutrients. Beaver, Daniel R.: “Deuce and a Half”: Selecting US Army Trucks, 1920-1945, in: Lynn (ed. : A mobile unit equipped with horse-drawn or motorized ambulances which evacuated soldiers from the Advanced Dressing Station rearward. [31] At around the same time the United States Shipping Board’s production had just begun to arrive in service. On the surface, this ought not to have been an issue since it required the .303 cartridge used by the Lee Enfield. In Britain, the wounded were cared for in a range of buildings around the country, from schools to stately homes. The holds were converted to 30 bed hospital wards and nurses’ accommodation. Desperate for soldiers, some countries were willing to look the other way, while others, like France, encouraged boys as young as 15 to join. As illustrated in Figure 2, 75 percent of the expenditure in 1914 was field artillery (13-pounder, 18-pounder and 4.5” howitzer). In some areas, especially around London, short connecting lines were built to allow the railway system to function more efficiently. © Historic England Archive. Soldiers with minor injuries were treated quickly and returned to the front line. Maude and his successor ultimately benefitted from this work as it, along with the delivery of significant quantities of riverine transport, rail supplies and land transport (both animal and motor-powered) created the modern line of communications on which they and their troops relied. Read about our latest aerial investigation methods. Selection. London 1927, pp. A lack of certain elements in the diet, such as vitamin C, leads to health problems like scurvy, from which British forces suffered in Mesopotamia before their lines of communication became a focus of effort. During the war both sides expended vast quantities of ammunition, especially on the western front, and use ramped up steadily over time. In 1914, almost all global trade moved by sea, generally in coal-fired shipping; today, almost all global trade still moves by sea but the ships are oil-fired, much faster and far larger than their predecessors. While the tonnage of those supplies increased steadily as fighter and bomber performance and capability grew, they never approached the level that would be seen later in the 20th century. London 1937, pp. So crucial was transportation that in the last months of the war, despite a shortage of front line soldiers, men with railway experience were being transferred from infantry units to … By late August 1917, Maude’s line of communications was working to extend one 2’6” rail line to Shahraban and pushing the standard gauge line to Museyib. Canal transport remained important to local economies, but similarly suffered from a lack of investment. The Tigris was navigable to shallow-draft vessels from Basra to a considerable distance upstream of Baghdad. War Office: Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914-1920 [hereafter: Statistics] (London 1922), p. 595. At higher levels of policy and grand strategy, logistic decisions generally revolve around force composition and destination. One TEU represents a container that is twenty feet by eight feet by eight feet and roughly 1,150 cubic feet in volume when the container itself is allowed for — the definition varies slightly — and many modern container ships carry 7,500 TEU or more. Both the Ottomans and the British had to create and maintain that infrastructure in order to support their troops in theater and both had to do so while also dealing with other combat theaters. Erickson, Edward J.: Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War, Westport 2001, Appendix F, Table F-3, p. 240. During the First World War, this had to be done daily, whatever the conditions, because the soldiers on the front lines could not simply go to the rear to pick supplies up at their leisure. In general, the British soldiers were transported several ways. In late 1916 Maude continued to emphasize the issues of supplies and transportation; following the advance to the Haj, he immediately began pushing the rail line forward and supplemented it with “streams of Ford motor vans perpetually on the move and long lines of camels and mule carts...”[47] All of this was aimed at accumulating supplies, ammunition and stores as far in advance as possible. A … A. P. Moller-Maersk A/S Group Annual Report, 2012, p. 39. US Department of the Army, Historical Division: United States Army in the World War, 1917-1919, Volume 14, Washington, DC 1948, CD-ROM reprint, Center for Military History, 2001, pp. During 1915 British forces pushed from the Basra area up the Tigris to Amara then Kut and up the Euphrates to Nasiriya. 2-3. However, as the war progressed, it became clear that horses were incredibly vulnerable to machine guns and artillery fire. If you're wondering how many soldiers were mobilised, there were 65 million. [14] Furthermore, when the temperature or combined effect of temperature and humidity reaches roughly thirty degrees Celsius, one must break up the working period with considerable periods of rest — say twenty minutes work and forty of rest per hour — which draws out the amount of time it takes to get things done. For starters, capital ships carried far larger and more powerful artillery than armies used; certainly they were heavier than those deployed by brigades or divisions. 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